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INTRODUCTION


      Traditionally, the very beginning of the  United  States’  history  is
considered from the time of European exploration  and  settlement,  starting
in the 16th century, to the present. But people had been living  in  America
for over 30,000 years before the first European colonists arrived.
      When Columbus landed on the island of San  Salvador  in  1492  he  was
welcomed by a brown-skinned people whose physical appearance  confirmed  him
in his opinion that he had at last reached India, and  whom,  therefore,  he
called Indios,  Indians,  a  name  which,  however  mistaken  in  its  first
application continued to hold its  own,  and  has  long  since  won  general
acceptance, except in strictly scientific  writing,  where  the  more  exact
term American is commonly used. As exploration was extended north and  south
it was found that the same race was spread over the  whole  continent,  from
the Arctic shores to Cape  Horn,  everywhere  alike  in  the  main  physical
characteristics, with the exception of  the  Eskimo  in  the  extreme  North
(whose features suggest the Mongolian).


                             GENERAL BACKGROUND



                            Origin and Antiquity


      Various origins have been assigned to the Indian  race.  The  more  or
less beleivable explanation is following. At the  height  of  the  Ice  Age,
between 34,000 and 30,000 B.C., much of the world's water was  contained  in
vast continental ice sheets. As a result, the Bering  Sea  was  hundreds  of
meters below its current level,  and  a  land  bridge,  known  as  Beringia,
emerged between Asia and North America. At its peak, Beringia is thought  to
have been some 1,500 kilometers wide. A moist and treeless  tundra,  it  was
covered with grasses and plant  life,  attracting  the  large  animals  that
early humans hunted for their survival. The  first  people  to  reach  North
America almost certainly did so without knowing they had crossed into a  new
continent. They would have been following game, as their ancestors  had  for
thousands of years, along the  Siberian  coast  and  then  across  the  land
bridge.


                                  Race Type


      The most marked physical characteristics of the Indian race  type  are
brown skin, dark brown eyes, prominent cheek  bones,  straight  black  hair,
and scantiness of beard. The color is not red,  as  is  popularly  supposed,
but varies from very light in some tribes, as the Cheyenne, to almost  black
in others, as the Caddo and Tarimari. In a few  tribes,  as  the  Flatheads,
the skin has a distinct yellowish cast. The hair is brown in childhood,  but
always black in the adult until it turns grey with age. Baldness  is  almost
unknown. The eye is not held so open as in the Caucasian  and  seems  better
adapted to distance than to close work. The nose  is  usually  straight  and
well shaped, and in some tribes strongly aquiline. Their hands and feet  are
comparatively small. Height and weight vary as among Europeans, the  Pueblos
averaging but little more than five feet, while  the  Cheyenne  and  Arapaho
are exceptionally tall, and the Tehuelche of  Patagonia  almost  massive  in
build. As a rule, the desert Indians, as the Apache, are spare and  muscular
in build, while those of the timbered  regions  are  heavier,  although  not
proportionately stronger. The beard is always  scanty,  but  increases  with
the admixture of  white  blood.  The  mistaken  idea  that  the  Indian  has
naturally no beard is due to the fact that in most tribes it is plucked  out
as fast as it grows, the eyebrows being treated in the same  way.  There  is
no tribe of "white Indians", but albinos with blond  skin,  weak  pink  eyes
and almost white hair are occasionally found, especially among the  Pueblos.



                            Major Cultural Areas


      From prehistoric times until recent historic times there were  roughly
six major cultural areas, excluding that of the Arctic (see  Eskimo),  i.e.,
Northwest  Coast,  Plains,  Plateau,  Eastern   Woodlands,   Northern,   and
Southwest.


   The Northwest Coast Area


      The Northwest Coast area extended along the Pacific coast  from  South
Alaska to North California. The main language families  in  this  area  were
the Nadene in the north and the Wakashan (a subdivision of  the  Algonquian-
Wakashan linguistic stock) and the Tsimshian (a subdivision of the  Penutian
linguistic stock) in the central area. Typical  tribes  were  the  Kwakiutl,
the Haida, the Tsimshian, and the Nootka. Thickly wooded, with  a  temperate
climate and heavy rainfall, the area  had  long  supported  a  large  Native
American population.  Salmon  was  the  staple  food,  supplemented  by  sea
mammals (seals and sea lions) and land mammals (deer,  elk,  and  bears)  as
well as berries and other wild fruit. The  Native  Americans  of  this  area
used wood to build their houses and  had  cedar-planked  canoes  and  carved
dugouts. In their permanent winter villages some of  the  groups  had  totem
poles, which were  elaborately  carved  and  covered  with  symbolic  animal
decoration. Their art work, for which they  are  famed,  also  included  the
making of  ceremonial  items,  such  as  rattles  and  masks;  weaving;  and
basketry.  They  had  a  highly  stratified  society  with  chiefs,  nobles,
commoners, and slaves. Public display and  disposal  of  wealth  were  basic
features of the society. They had woven robes,  furs,  and  basket  hats  as
well as wooden armor and  helmets  for  battle.  This  distinctive  culture,
which included cannibalistic rituals, was not greatly affected  by  European
influences until after the late 18th cent., when the white fur  traders  and
hunters came to the area.
      TRIBES:  Abenaki,  Algonkin,  Beothuk,  Delaware,  Erie,  Fox,  Huron,
      Illinois,  Iroquois,  Kickapoo,   Mahican,   Mascouten,   Massachuset,
      Mattabesic, Menominee, Metoac,  Miami,  Micmac,  Mohegan,  Montagnais,
      Narragansett, Nauset, Neutrals, Niantic,  Nipissing,  Nipmuc,  Ojibwe,
      Ottawa,  Pennacook,  Pequot,  Pocumtuck,  Potawatomi,  Sauk,  Shawnee,
      Susquehannock, Tionontati, Wampanoag, Wappinger, Wenro, Winnebago.


   The Plains Area

      The Plains area extended from just North of the Canadian border, South
to Texas and included the grasslands area between the Mississippi River  and
the foothills of the Rocky Mts. The main  language  families  in  this  area
were the Algonquian-Wakashan, the Aztec-Tanoan,  and  the  Hokan-Siouan.  In
pre-Columbian times there  were  two  distinct  types  of  Native  Americans
there: sedentary and nomadic. The sedentary tribes, who  had  migrated  from
neighbor ing  regions  and  had  initally  settled  along  the  great  river
valleys, were farmers and lived in permanent villages of  dome-shaped  earth
lodges surrounded by earthen walls. They raised  corn,  squash,  and  beans.
The foot  nomads, on the other hand, moved about with their  goods  on  dog-
drawn travois and eked out a precarious existence by hunting the vast  herds
of buffalo (bison) - usually by driving them  into  enclosures  or  rounding
them up by setting grass fires. They supplemented their diet  by  exchanging
meat and hides for the corn of the agricultural Native Americans.
      The horse, first introduced by the Spanish of the Southwest,  appeared
in the Plains about the beginning of the 18th cent. and  revolutionized  the
life of the Plains Indians. Many Native Americans left  their  villages  and
joined the nomads. Mounted and armed with bow and  arrow,  they  ranged  the
grasslands hunting buffalo. The  other  Native  Americans  remained  farmers
(e.g., the Arikara, the Hidatsa, and  the  Mandan).  Native  Americans  from
surrounding areas came into the Plains  (e.g.,  the  Sioux  from  the  Great
Lakes, the Comanche and the Kiowa from  the  west  and  northwest,  and  the
Navajo and the  Apache  from  the  southwest).  A  universal  sign  language
developed  among  the  perpetually  wandering  and  often   warring   Native
Americans. Living on horseback and in the  portable  tepee,  they  preserved
food by pounding and drying lean meat and made their  clothes  from  buffalo
hides and deerskins. The system of coup  was  a  characteristic  feature  of
their society. Other features were rites of fasting in quest  of  a  vision,
warrior clans, bead and feather art work, and decorated hides. These  Plains
Indians were among the last to engage in a serious struggle with  the  white
settlers in the United States.
      TRIBES:  Arapaho,  Arikara,  Assiniboine,  Bidai,  Blackfoot,   Caddo,
      Cheyenne, Comanche, Cree, Crow, Dakota (Sioux), Gros Ventre,  Hidatsa,
      Iowa, Kansa, Kiowa,  Kiowa-Apache,  Kitsai,  Lakota  (Sioux),  Mandan,
      Metis, Missouri, Nakota (Sioux), Omaha, Osage,  Otoe,  Pawnee,  Ponca,
      Sarsi, Sutai, Tonkawa, Wichita.


   The Plateau Area

      The Plateau area extended from above the Canadian border  through  the
plateau and mountain area of the Rocky Mts. to the  Southwest  and  included
much of California. Typical tribes were the  Spokan,  the  Paiute,  the  Nez
Perce, and the Shoshone. This was an area  of  great  linguistic  diversity.
Because  of  the  inhospitable  environment  the  cultural  development  was
generally low. The Native Americans in the Central Valley of California  and
on the California coast,  notably  the  Pomo,  were  sedentary  peoples  who
gathered edible plants, roots, and fruit and also hunted small  game.  Their
acorn bread, made by pounding acorns into meal and  then  leaching  it  with
hot water, was distinctive, and they cooked in  baskets  filled  with  water
and heated by hot stones. Living in brush shelters or more substantial lean-
tos, they had partly buried earth lodges for  ceremonies  and  ritual  sweat
baths. Basketry, coiled and twined, was  highly  developed.  To  the  north,
between the Cascade Range and the Rocky Mts.,  the  social,  political,  and
religious  systems  were  simple,  and  art  was  nonexistent.  The   Native
Americans there underwent (since 1730) a great  cultural  change  when  they
obtained from the Plains Indians the horse, the tepee, a  form  of  the  sun
dance, and deerskin clothes. They continued, however,  to  fish  for  salmon
with nets and spears and to gather camas bulbs. They also gathered ants  and
other insects and hunted small game and,  in  later  times,  buffalo.  Their
permanent winter villages on  waterways  had  semisubterranean  lodges  with
conical roofs; a few Native Americans lived in bark-covered long houses.
        TRIBES:  Carrier,  Cayuse,  Coeur  D'Alene,  Colville,   Dock-Spus,
      Eneeshur, Flathead, Kalispel, Kawachkin, Kittitas, Klamath, Klickitat,
      Kosith, Kutenai, Lakes, Lillooet, Methow, Modac, Nez Perce,  Okanogan,
      Palouse,  Sanpoil,  Shushwap,  Sinkiuse,  Spokane,  Tenino,  Thompson,
      Tyigh, Umatilla,  Wallawalla,  Wasco,  Wauyukma,  Wenatchee,  Wishram,
      Wyampum, Yakima. Californian: Achomawi, Atsugewi, Cahuilla, Chimariko,
      Chumash, Costanoan, Esselen, Hupa,  Karuk,  Kawaiisu,  Maidu,  Mission
      Indians,  Miwok,  Mono,  Patwin,  Pomo,   Serrano,   Shasta,   Tolowa,
      Tubatulabal,  Wailaki,  Wintu,  Wiyot,  Yaha,  Yokuts,   Yuki,   Yuman
      (California).


   The Eastern Woodlands Area

      The Eastern Woodlands area covered the  eastern  part  of  the  United
States, roughly from the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Mississippi  River,  and
included the Great Lakes. The Natchez, the Choctaw, the  Cherokee,  and  the
Creek were typical inhabitants. The northeastern part of this area  extended
from Canada to Kentucky and Virginia.  The  people  of  the  area  (speaking
languages of the Algonquian-Wakashan stock) were largely  deer  hunters  and
farmers; the women tended small  plots  of  corn,  squash,  and  beans.  The
birchbark canoe gained wide usage in  this  area.  The  general  pattern  of
existence of  these  Algonquian  peoples  and  their  neighbors,  who  spoke
languages belonging to  the  Iroquoian  branch  of  the  Hokan-Siouan  stock
(enemies who had probably invaded from the south), was quite complex.  Their
diet of deer meat was supplemented by other game (e.g., bear), fish  (caught
with hook, spear, and net), and shellfish. Cooking was done  in  vessels  of
wood and bark or simple  black  pottery.  The  dome-shaped  wigwam  and  the
longhouse  of  the  Iroquois  characterized  their  housing.  The   deerskin
clothing, the painting of the face and (in the case of the  men)  body,  and
the scalp lock of the men (left when hair was shaved on both  sides  of  the
head), were typical.  The  myths  of  Manitou  (often  called  Manibozho  or
Manabaus), the hero who remade the world from mud after a deluge,  are  also
widely known.
      The region from the Ohio River South to the Gulf of Mexico,  with  its
forests and fertile soil, was the heart of  the  southeastern  part  of  the
Eastern Woodlands cultural area. There before  c.500  the  inhabitants  were
seminomads who hunted, fished, and gathered roots  and  seeds.  Between  500
and 900 they adopted  agriculture,  tobacco  smoking,  pottery  making,  and
burial mounds. By c.1300 the agricultural economy was well established,  and
artifacts found in the mounds show that trade was  widespread.  Long  before
the Europeans arrived, the peoples of the Natchez and Muskogean branches  of
the Hokan-Siouan linguistic family were farmers who used  hoes  with  stone,
bone, or shell blades. They hunted with bow and arrow  and  blowgun,  caught
fish by poisoning streams, and gathered berries, fruit, and shellfish.  They
had excellent pottery, sometimes decorated with abstract figures of  animals
or humans. Since  warfare  was  frequent  and  intense,  the  villages  were
enclosed by wooden palisades  reinforced  with  earth.  Some  of  the  large
villages, usually ceremonial centers, dominated the smaller  settlements  of
the surrounding countryside. There were temples for sun worship; rites  were
elaborate and featured  an  altar  with  perpetual  fire,  extinguished  and
rekindled each year in a “new  fire”  ceremony.  The  society  was  commonly
divided into classes, with a chief,  his  children,  nobles,  and  commoners
making up the hierarchy. For a discussion of the earliest  Woodland  groups,
see the separate article Eastern Woodlands culture.
      TRIBES: Acolapissa, Asis,  Alibamu,  Apalachee,  Atakapa,  Bayougoula,
      Biloxi, Calusa, Catawba, Chakchiuma, Cherokee,  Chesapeake  Algonquin,
      Chickasaw, Chitamacha, Choctaw,  Coushatta,  Creek,  Cusabo,  Gaucata,
      Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, Jeags, Karankawa, Lumbee, Miccosukee,  Mobile,
      Napochi,  Nappissa,  Natchez,   Ofo,   Powhatan,   Quapaw,   Seminole,
      Southeastern Siouan, Tekesta, Tidewater  Algonquin,  Timucua,  Tunica,
      Tuscarora,  Yamasee,  Yuchi.  Bannock,   Paiute   (Northern),   Paiute
      (Southern), Sheepeater, Shoshone (Northern), Shoshone (Western),  Ute,
      Washo.

   The Northern Area

      The Northern area covered most of Canada, also known as the Subarctic,
in the belt of semiarctic land from the Rocky Mts. to Hudson Bay.  The  main
languages in this area were those of the Algonquian-Wakashan and the  Nadene
stocks.  Typical  of  the  people  there  were   the   Chipewyan.   Limiting
environmental conditions prevented  farming,  but  hunting,  gathering,  and
activities such as trapping and fishing were  carried  on.  Nomadic  hunters
moved with the  season  from  forest  to  tundra,  killing  the  caribou  in
semiannual drives. Other food was  provided  by  small  game,  berries,  and
edible roots. Not only food but clothing and  even  some  shelter  (caribou-
skin tents) came from the caribou,  and  with  caribou  leather  thongs  the
Indians laced their snowshoes and made nets and bags. The snowshoe  was  one
of the most important items of material culture. The shaman featured in  the
religion of many of these people.
      TRIBES:   Calapuya,    Cathlamet,    Chehalis,    Chemakum,    Chetco,
      Chilluckkittequaw, Chinook,  Clackamas,  Clatskani,  Clatsop,  Cowich,
      Cowlitz, Haida, Hoh, Klallam, Kwalhioqua, Lushootseed, Makah,  Molala,
      Multomah, Oynut, Ozette,  Queets,  Quileute,  Quinault,  Rogue  River,
      Siletz, Taidhapam, Tillamook, Tutuni, Yakonan.


   The Southwest Area

      The Southwest area generally extended over Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and
parts of Colorado and Utah.  The  Uto-Aztecan  branch  of  the  Aztec-Tanoan
linguistic  stock  was  the  main  language  group  of  the  area.  Here   a
seminomadic people called  the  Basket  Makers,  who  hunted  with  a  spear
thrower, or atlatl, acquired (c.1000 B.C.) the art of cultivating beans  and
squash, probably from their southern neighbors. They also  learned  to  make
unfired pottery. They wove baskets, sandals, and bags. By  c.700  B.C.  they
had initiated intensive agriculture, made true pottery, and hunted with  bow
and arrow. They lived in pit dwellings, which were  partly  underground  and
were lined with slabs of stone - the so-called slab  houses.  A  new  people
came into the area some two centuries later; these  were  the  ancestors  of
the Pueblo Indians. They lived in large, terraced community  houses  set  on
ledges of cliffs or  canyons  for  protection  and  developed  a  ceremonial
chamber (the kiva) out  of  what  had  been  the  living  room  of  the  pit
dwellings. This period of development ended c.1300, after a  severe  drought
and the beginnings of the  invasions  from  the  north  by  the  Athabascan-
speaking Navajo and Apache. The  known  historic  Pueblo  cultures  of  such
sedentary farming peoples as the Hopi and the Zuni  then  came  into  being.
They cultivated corn, beans, squash, cotton,  and  tobacco,  killed  rabbits
with a wooden throwing stick,  and  traded  cotton  textiles  and  corn  for
buffalo  meat  from  nomadic  tribes.  The  men  wove  cotton  textiles  and
cultivated the  fields,  while  women  made  fine  polychrome  pottery.  The
mythology and religious ceremonies were complex.
      TRIBES: Apache (Eastern), Apache  (Western),  Chemehuevi,  Coahuiltec,
      Hopi, Jano, Manso, Maricopa, Mohave, Navaho, Pai, Papago, Pima, Pueblo
      (breaking into: Acoma, Cochiti, Isleta, Jemez, Laguna, Nambe, Picuris,
      Pojoaque, Sandia, San Felipe, San  Ildefonso,  San  Juan,  Santa  Ana,
      Santa Clara, Santo  Domingo,  Taos,  Tesuque,  Zia),  Yaqui,  Yavapai,
      Yuman, Zuni.  Am strongly thinking about


                          LIFESTYLE and TRADITIONS



                             Social Organization


   Among most of the tribes east of  the  Mississippi,  among  the  Pueblos,
Navahos, and others of the South-West, and among the Tlingit  and  Haida  of
the north-west coast, society was based upon the clan  system,  under  which
the tribe was divided into a number of large family groups, the  members  of
which were considered as closely related and prohibited from  intermarrying.
The children usually followed the clan of the mother. The  clans  themselves
were sometimes grouped into larger bodies of related kindred, to  which  the
name of phratries has been applied. The clans were usually, but not  always,
named from animals, and each clan paid special  reverence  to  its  tutelary
animal. Thus the Cherokee had seven clans,  Wolf,  Deer,  Bird,  Paint,  and
three others with names not readily translated. A Wolf man could  not  marry
a Wolf woman, but might marry a Deer woman, or  one  of  any  of  the  other
clans, and his children were of the Deer clan or other clan accordingly.  In
some tribes the name of the individual indicated the clan, as  "Round  Foot"
in the wolf clan and "Crawler" in the  Turtle  clan.  Certain  functions  of
war, peace, or ceremonial were usually  hereditary  in  special  clans,  and
revenge for injuries with the tribe devolved upon the clan relatives of  the
person injured. The tribal council was made up of the hereditary or  elected
chiefs, and any alien taken into the tribe had to  be  specifically  adopted
into a family and clan. The clan system was by no  means  universal  but  is
now known to have been limited to particular regions and seems to have  been
originally an artificial  contrivance  to  protect  land  and  other  tribal
descent. It was absent almost everywhere west of the Missouri, excepting  in
the South-West, and appears to  have  been  unknown  throughout  the  geater
portion of British America, the interior of Alaska, and probably  among  the
Eskimos. Among the plains tribes, the  unit  was  the  band,  whose  members
camped together under their own chief, in an appointed place in  the  tribal
camp circle, and were  subject  to  no  marriage  prohibition,  but  usually
married among themselves.
   With a few notable exceptions, there  was  very  little  idea  of  tribal
solidarity or supreme authority, and where a chief  appears  in  history  as
tribal dictator, as in the case of Powhatan in Virginia, it was usually  due
to his own strong personality. The real authority was with  the  council  as
interpreters of ancient tribal customs. Even such well-known tribes  as  the
Creeks and  Cherokee  were  really  only  aggregations  of  closely  cognate
villages, each acting independently or in cooperation  with  the  others  as
suited its immediate convenience. Even  in  the  smaller  and  more  compact
tribes there was seldom any provision for coercing the individual to  secure
common action, but those of the same clan or band  usually  acted  together.
In this lack of solidarity is the secret of Indian military weakness. In  no
Indian war in the history of the United States  has  a  single  large  tribe
ever united in solid resistance, while on the other hand other  tribes  have
always been found to join against the hostiles. Among the Natchez,  Tinucua,
and some other southern tribes,  there  is  more  indication  of  a  central
authority, resting probably with a dominant clan.
      The Iroquois of New York had progressed beyond any other native people
north of Mexico in  the  elaboration  of  a  state  and  empire.  Through  a
carefully planned system of  confederations,  originating  about  1570,  the
five allied tribes had secured internal peace and unity, by which  they  had
been able to acquire dominant control over most of the  tribes  from  Hudson
Bay to Carolina, and if  not  prematurely  checked  by  the  advent  of  the
whites, might in time have founded a northern empire to rival  that  of  the
Aztec.
      Land was usually held in common, except among the  Pueblos,  where  it
was apportioned among the clans, and in some tribes in northern  California,
where individual right is said to have existed.  Timber  and  other  natural
products were free, and hospitality was carried to such  a  degree  that  no
man kept what  his  neighbour  wanted.  While  this  prevented  extremes  of
poverty, on the other hand it paralyzed  individual  industry  and  economy,
and was an effectual barrier to progress. The accumulation of  property  was
further discouraged by the fact that in most  tribes  it  was  customary  to
destroy all the belongings of the owner at his death. The word  for  "brave"
and "generous" was frequently the  same,  and  along  the  north-west  coast
there existed the curious custom known as potlatch, under which a man  saved
for half a lifetime in order to acquire the rank of chief by finally  giving
away his entire hoard at a grand public feast.
      Enslavement of  captives  was  more  or  less  common  throughout  the
country,  especially  in  the  southern  states,  where  the  captives  were
sometimes crippled to prevent their escape. Along the north-west  coast  and
as far south as California, not only the captives  but  their  children  and
later descendants were slaves and might be  abused  or  slaughtered  at  the
will of the master,  being  frequently  burned  alive  with  their  deceased
owner, or butchered to provide a ceremonial cannibal feast. In the  Southern
slave states, before the Civil War, the  Indians  were  frequent  owners  of
negro slaves.
      Men and women, and sometimes even the older 

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