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Введение


    Объектом исследования моей работы являются обычаи и традиции англо-
говорящих  стран. И я хочу сказать, что жизнь этих стран полна традиций и
обычаев. Некоторые из них очень красивые, красочные и живописные и,
кажется, весьма разумные; другие - любопытны, иногда забавны, иногда
существуют лишь для привлечения туристов. Многие традиции появились очень
давно и прошли многие столетия, другие – появились сравнительно недавно. Но
некоторые из них давно пережили себя и стали обременительными и остаются
лишь из-за известного английского консерватизма. Есть много традиций,
связанных с историческими событиями, Парламентом, судом, университетской
жизнью, а также традиции и обычаи, появляющиеся в каждодневной жизни.
    Приблизительно одна треть населения земного шара разговаривают на
английском языке. Для некоторых он является родным, другим – в силу
исторически сложившихся обстоятельств стал вторым после родного. В странах,
куда английский язык был привнесен, он искажается и трансформируется с
учетом новых для него “условий жизни”,  “приспосабливается” к местным
обычаям и традициям, принимая различные диалектные формы.
     Похожее случилось и с исконно английскими традициями. В разных
местностях они приобретали собственное толкование и постепенно
видоизменялись и даже до такой степени, что при сравнении вряд ли возможно
найти схожие черты у старой английской традиции и у преобразовавшейся.
    Цель моей работы – изучить обобщенный опыт жизни и традиций англо-
говорящих стран. Для людей, которые собираются путешествовать по миру
особенно важно знать язык, обычаи, традиции той страны, которую они
собираются посетить. Невозможно, например, приехать в Шотландию и смеяться
над их национальной одеждой - клетчатыми юбками; или, например, удивляться
тому, что Королева Великобритании начинает свой день с завтрака - овсяной
каши - и это уже давно сложившийся для нее обычай. Для того чтобы избежать
такой ситуации, перед тем как ехать в какую-либо страну необходимо
ознакомиться хотя бы с общепринятыми обычаями этой страны.
    Одной из главных традиций большинства государств мира является
празднование своего национального праздника. Во Франции это День взятия
Бастилии, в США – День независимости, в Германии два национальных праздника
– День освобождения и День республики. В нашей стране – День суверенитета.
    А как обстоят дела с национальными праздниками в Великобритании? Будучи
островным государством, Британия долгое время оказывала влияние на
политическое и социально-экономическое развитие других государств. Проводя
гибкую политику, Британия сумела принимать участие в большинстве
международных военных конфликтах, не допустив военных действий на своей
территории. Все это способствовало развитию высокому уровню жизни и
благосостоянию английского народа. Англичане не ощущали особой потребности
в национальном самоутверждении и в специальном дне для ликования по поводу
того, что они – британцы. Народ Соединенного Королевства не испытывал нужды
каждый год напоминать себе и другим, что, например, британский парламент,
возраст которого перевалил за семь столетий, становится еще на год старше
или что тред-юнионы  - самые старые профсоюзы в мире. Правда, в последние
годы существования Британской империи был введен День империи, но отмечался
он недолго, а выходным был лишь для школьников и учителей. В 1958 году его
заменил День Содружества, который с 1966 года отмечается в июне как
официальный день рождения монарха. Англичане рассуждают примерно так: «Мы
уже достаточно веско заявили миру о себе, чтобы не повторяться теперь
ежегодно». Но национальный праздник все-таки необходим для официальных
целей – так, за границей послам полагается устраивать приемы в честь дня
своей страны, они выступают по телевидению той страны, где представляют
свою родину и т. д.
    Национальным праздником Соединенного Королевства является день рождения
монарха, о котором уже было сказано. А сейчас я хочу остановиться на том
особенном, что характерно для некоторых англо-говорящих стран.

    “Do you speak English?” with this phrase begins the conversation
between two people, that speak different languages and want to find a
common language.
    It’s very good when you hear: “Yes I do”, and start talking. People of
different countries and nations have to get along well with the progress in
world trade and technology as well as with each other.
    So it is very useful to learn foreign languages. Knowledge of foreign
languages helps us to develop friendship and understanding among people.
    English is very popular now. It’s the language of computers, science,
business, sport and politics. It is official language of United Kingdom,
Ireland, the United States of America, Canada, Australia. There are more
than 1 billion speakers of English of the World.
    Speaking a foreign language you are read papers, magazines, and
original books by great writers, watch satellite TV Programs. If you like
traveling you can go anywhere without being afraid that other people will
not understand you. English is very important to find a good job.



USA


Independence Day


    On July 4 the Americans celebrate their national holiday-independence
Day. The United States gained independence as a result of gradual and
painful process. By the mid 1700’s it became difficult for thirteen British
colonies in the New World to be ruled by a kind 3000 miles across the
ocean. The British Empire imposed high taxes upon the colonies.
    In 1774, the First Continental Congress drew up a list of grievances
against the British crown. This document was the first draft of the
document that would formally separate colonies from England. In 1755, the
Revolutionary War began. On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress
presented a second draft of the list of grievances. On July 4 the
Continental Congress approved the declaration of Independence. But the War
of independence lasted until 1783. After the war Independence Day became an
official holiday.
    On July 4, Americans have holiday from work. People have day-long
picnic with favorite foods like hot dog, hamburgers, potato salad, baked
beans. Lively music is heard everywhere. People play baseball or compete
three-legged races or pie-eating or water-melon-eating contests. Some
cities have parades with people dressed as the original founding fathers
who march to the music of high school bands. In the evening people gather
to watch firework displays. Wherever Americans are around the globe they
will get together to celebrate Independence Day.

Sport


    Americans’ interest in sport seems excessive to many foreign visitors.
Television networks spend millions of dollars arranging to telecast sport
events. Publications about sports sell widely. In the US professional
athletes can became national heroes.
    Sports are associated with educational institutions in a way is unique.
High schools have coaches as faculty members, and school teams compete with
each other.
    Nowhere else in the world are sports associated with colleges and
universities in the way they are in the States. College sports, especially
football, are conducted in an atmosphere of intense excitement and
pageantry. Games between teams attract nationwide television audiences
    The sport that is most popular in most of the world-soccer-is not well
known in the US. The most popular sports are football and baseball, games
that are not played in large number of countries.
    Spots play such an important role in American life that the sociology
of sport, sport medicine, and sport psychology have become respectable
specializations.
    Many Americans jog every day, or play tennis or bridge two or three
times a week. They go on ski trips and hunting expeditions that require
weeks of planning and organizing. In Americans’ view, all these activities
are worth the discomfort they may cause because they contribute to health
and physical fitness. That is probably why Americans are known as a healthy
nation.
    Americans are very fond of sport. The most popular sports in USA are
football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey.
    American football derives from the English game of rugby. It started at
Harvard University in the1870’s. It is a game for two teams of eleven men
on field. The object of the game is to have control of the ball and to
score points by carrying it across the goal-line.
    Baseball is a team game derived from the English game of cricket. It is
played with a bat and ball by two teams of nine players each, on a field
with four bases. Baseball is the national game in the USA and it is very
popular in Canada too.
    Basketball is a game which nowadays is popular all over the world. It
was invented in 1891. During the ‘20s the first US league championship was
organized. In the ‘70s the American Championship was divided into two
leagues: the ABA (American Basketball Association), which does not exist
any longer and which played with a blue, red and white ball and NBA
(National Basketball Association).
    The NBA is a professional league which still plays.
    There are more activities which Americans take part in such as golf,
swimming, tennis, aerobics, wrestling, etc.


Halloween


    Halloween is a festival that takes place on October 31. In the us
children wear costumes and masks and go trick-or-treating. Many of them
carve jack-o’-lantens out of pumpkins. Fortunetelling and storytelling
about ghosts and witches are popular activities.
    Halloween developed from new year festivals and festivals of the dead.
Christian church established a festival on November 1 called All Saints’
Day so that people could continue to celebrate their festivals. The Mass
said on All Saints’ Day was called Allhallowmass. The day before All Saints
Day was known all hallows Eve or Halloween.
    The main Halloween activity for children is trick-or-treating. Children
dress in costumes and masks and go from door to door saying “trick or
treat”. The neighbors give children such treats as candy, fruit and pennies
so that children do not play tricks on them.
    Jack-o’-lanterns are hallowed-out pumpkins with face carved into one
side. Most jack-o-lanterns contain a cantle inside. An Irish legend says
that jack-o’-lanterns are named after the man called jack. He could not
enter heaven because he was a miser, and he could not enter hell because he
had played jokes on devil. As a result, Jack has to walk on the earth with
his lantern until Judgment Day.
    Fortunetelling an important part of Halloween. For example, a coin, a
ring, and thimble were baked into a cake. It was believed that the person
who found the ring would marry soon. And the person who found the thimble
would never get married. Today people practice cardreading or palmistry.
    People once believed that there were many ghosts and witches on the
Earth and that they met on October 31 to worship the devil. Today, people
do not believe in ghosts and witches but they like to tell stories about
them on Halloween.


Thanksgiving


    Almost in every culture in the world there is a celebration of thanks
for rich harvest. The American Thanksgiving began as a feast of
thanksgiving almost four hundred years ago.
    In 1620, a religious community sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to
settle in the New World. They settled in what is now known as the state of
Massachusettes. Their first winter in America was difficult. They arrived
too late to grow a rich harvest. Moreover, half the colony died  from
disease. The following spring the Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow
corn. Indians showed them also how to grow other crops and how to hunt and
fish.
    In the autumn of 1621 they got a beautiful harvest of corn, barley,
beans and pumpkins. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so they
planned a feast. Local Indian chief and ninety Indians were present. The
colonists learned from Indians how to cook cranberries and dishes of corn
and pumpkins.
    In following years many of the colonists celebrated the harvest with a
feast of thanks. After the United States gained independence, Congress
recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving for the whole country. Later
George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Than,
after the civil war, Abraham Lincoln suggested the last Thursday in
November to be the day of thanksgiving.
    On Thanksgiving Day, family members gather at the house of an older
relative, even if they far away. All give thanks for everything good they
have. Charitable organizations offer traditional meal to homeless.
    Foods, eaten at the first thanksgiving, have become traditional. The
traditional thanksgiving meal consists of roast turkey stuffed with herb-
flavored bread, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, pumpkin pie. Other dishes
may vary as to region: ham, sweet potatoes, creamed corn.


Christmas


    Christmas is Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus
Christ. For millions of Christmas throughout the world it is the happiest
and the busiest time of the year. No one knows the exact date of Christ’s
birth but most Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25. The world
Christmas comes from Christes maesse, an early English phrase that means
Mass of Christ.
    People of different countries celebrate Christmas in various ways.
People in the United States and Canada decorate their homes with Christmas
trees, wreaths and ornaments. City streets are filled with colored lights;
the sound of bells and Christmas carols can be heard everywhere.
    Children write letters to Santa Claus and tell him what presents they
would like to get. Many department stores hire people to a Santa Claus
costume and listen to children’s requests. People send Christmas cards to
relatives and friends. Many companies give presents to their employees.
    A Christmas tree is one of the main symbols of Christmas in most homes.
Relatives and friends may join in trimming the tree with lights, tinsel,
and colorful ornaments. Presents are placed under the tree. On Christmas
Eve or Christmas morning, families open their presents. Many children
believe that Santa Claus arrives on Christmas Eve in a sleigh pulled by
reindeer and brings present. Some children hang up stockings so Santa Claus
can fill them with candy, fruits and other small gifts.
    In many parts of the United States and Canada groups of people walk
from house to house and sing Christmas carols. Some people give singers
money or small gifts or invite them for a warm drink. Many people attend
church services on Christmas Eve or Christmas morning. They listen to
readings from Bible and singing Christmas carols.
    A traditional Christmas dinner consist of stuffed turkey, mashed
potatoes, cranberry sauce a variety of other dishes. Some families have ham
or roast goose instead of turkey. Pumpkin pie, plum pudding, and fruitcake
are favorite desserts.


Valentine’s Day


    There are several legends about St. Valentine’s Day. One of the legends
says that Valentine was Christian pries who lived in the 3 century A.D. he
was put into prison by roman authorities for his teachings and was beheaded
on February cured his jailer’s daughter of her blindness. Before the
execution he wrote her a letter signed “From Your Valentine”. Another
legend says that the same Valentine wrote to children and friends who loved
him from the jail.
    According to another legend, Valentine was an Italian bishop who lived
at about the same time. He was thrown into prison because he secretly
married couples, contrary to the laws of the Roman Empire. The legend says
that he was burnt at the stake.
    February 14 was also a Roman holiday. On this day young men randomly
chose the name of the girl to escort to the festival. The custom of
choosing a sweetheart on this day became very popular in the medieval
Europe. Later this custom spread to American colonies.
    Now, St. Valentine’s Day is the day of sweethearts. On this day, people
show their friends relatives and loved ones that they care. People send
candy of flowers to those whom they love. Most people send “valentines”,
greeting cards named after St. Valentine’s letters written from jail.
Valentines can be sentimental and romantic, or funny and friendly.
Valentines can be anonymous. Valentines can be heard-shaped or can carry
hearts on them. People buy valentines or make them themselves.


England



    England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The
capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities,
such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting
cities such as York, Chester, Oxford and Cambridge.
    Stonehenge is a one of the most famous prehistoric places in the world.
This ancient circle of stones stands in South-west England. It measures 30
metres across and made with massive blocks of stone up to four metres high.
Why it was built is a mystery.
    Not far from Stonehenge stands Salisbury Cathedral. It is a splendid
example of an English Gothic Cathedral; inside there is one of four copies
of Magna Charta and the oldest clock in England.
    Chester is very important town in the north-west of England. In the
past it used to be a Roman fort; its name comes from the Latin word castra,
meaning “fortified camp”. In Chester there is a famous museum which
contains over 5000 ancient and modern toys.
    Oxford is the home of the oldest university of England. The most famous
college is Christ Church. It has a great hall which was build during the
reign of Henry 8 and its chapel has become the Cathedral of Oxford.
Cambridge is the capital of Britain’s second oldest university.
    York was the capital of Northern England. It is one of the best
preserved medieval cities of Europe. It was build by Romans, conquered by
Anglo-Saxons and ruled by the Vikings. Birmingham is often called the “City
of 1500 trades” because of the great variety of its industries.



Ways of Everyday Live

    Very often when speaking of English traditions we think first of some
curious theatrical ceremonies of the court* or parliament procedure. There
come to our mind the medieval uniforms of the guards, the solemn cloaks and
wigs of the judges or the top hats (bowlers) and the invariable umbrellas
of the clerks of the London City.
    But the word “tradition” does not mean only that. First and foremost
“tradition” is the generally accepted made or way of living, acting,
behaving of just doing things. There are many very good traditions of this
kind in the everyday life of the English.


Everything is the Other Way Round

    In England everything is the other way round. On Sunday on the
Continent even the poorest person puts on his best suit, tries to look
respectable, and at the same time the life of the country becomes gay and
cheerful; in England even the richest peer or motor-car manufacturer
dresses in some peculiar rags, does not shave, and the country becomes dull
and dreary.
    On the Continent there is one topic, which should be avoided – the
weather; in England, if you do not repeat the phrase “Lovely day, isn’t
it?” at least two hundred times a day, you are considered a bit dull. On
the Continent Sunday papers appear on Monday; in England – a country of
exotic oddities – they appear on Sunday.
    On a continental bus approaching a request stop the conductor rings the
bell if he wants his bus to go on without stopping; in England you ring the
bell if you want the bus to stop. On the Continent people have good food;
in England people have good table manners.
    On the Continent public orators try to learn to speak fluently and
smoothly; in England they take a special course in Oxonian stuttering.
    On the Continent learned person love to quote Aristotle, Horace,
Montaigne and show off their knowledge; in England only uneducated people
show off their knowledge, nobody quotes Latin or Greek authors in the
course of a conversation, unless he has never read them.
    Continental people are sensitive and touchy; the English take
everything with an exquisite sense of humour – they are only offended if
you tell them that they have no sense of humour.
    People on the Continent either tell you the truth or lie; in England
they hardly ever lie, but they would not – dream of telling you the truth.
    Many continentals think life is a game; the English think cricket is a
game.


Lunch at 1 o’clock

    Many foreigners are sometimes taken aback when they are faced with this
typically English custom for the first time.
    Whatever one is doing, no matter how important it is, or seems to be –
a parliamentary debate or any kind of business routine – as soon as the
clock strikes one everybody breaks for lunch.
    The time from one to two o’clock is a “sacred” hour in England. And it
appears to be not only good for health – having meals at regular times is
certainly healthy – but it is very convenient socially as well. Everybody
knows that there is no use trying to get in touch with some official,
business executive or firm representative at this time. They won’t be in.
it is no use no waste your time going from one shop to another at one
o’clock sharp they will open. For punctuality is also one of the English
traditions.


English Sunday

    The so called Sunday Observance laws* prohibiting all kind of public
entertainment on Sunday date back to the 17-18 century. The idea was to
encourage people to go church and not to allow them “to profane the Lord’s
Day” by amusing themselves.
    Three hundred years have passed since then. Church services are
attended by fewer people now than some decades ago. But the old custom of
having a quiet Sunday is still alive. This is another English tradition
preserved by law.
    On Sunday you may visit a museum or go to a concert but all shops,
theatres, dance and music halls are closed. This is rather illogical when
compared with the unrestricted variety programmes on radio and television
or the fact that one can always go to the bingo-club to enjoy himself or to
the cinema to see a “thriller” or the latest American “hit”.
    Pubs* and restaurants are open only from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 10 p.m.
The police are very strict and do not hesitate to withdraw the licence from
the proprietors who disregard closing time.



English Tea

    The trouble with the tea is that originally is was quite a good drink.
So a group of the most eminent British scientists put their heads together,
and made complicated biological experiments to find a way of spoiling it.
To eternal glory of British science their labour bore fruit. They suggested
that if you do not drink it clear, or with lemon or rum and sugar, but pour
a few drops of cold milk into it, and no sugar at all, the desired object
is achieved. Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was
successfully transformed into colorless and tasteless gargling-water*, it
suddenly became the national drink of Great Britain and Ireland – still
retaining, indeed usurping, the high-sounding title of tea.
    There are some occasions when you must not refuse a cup of tea,
otherwise you are judged an exotic and barbarous bird without any hope of
ever being able to take your place in civilized society.
    If you are invited to an English home, at five o’clock in the morning
you get a cup of tea. It is either brought in by a heartily smiling hostes
or an almost malevolently silent maid. When you are disturbed in your
sweetest morning sleep you must not say: “Madame (or Mabel), I think you
are a cruel, spiteful and malignant person who deserved to be shot.” On the
contrary, you have to declare with your best five o’clock smile: “Thank you
so much. I do adore a cup of early morning tea, especially early in the
morning.” If they live you alone with the liquid, you may pour it down the
washbasin.
    Than you have tea for breakfast; then you have tea at eleven o’clock in
the morning; then after lunch; then you have tea for tea; then for supper;
and again at eleven o’clock at night. You mast not refuse any additional
cups of tea under the following circumstances: is it is hot; if it is cold;
if you are tired; if anybody thinks that you might be tired; if you are
nervous; if you are gay; before you go out; if you have just returned home;
if you feel like it; if you do not feel like it; if you have had no tea for
some time; if you have just had a cup…


Fireplaces

    In English homes, the fireplace has always been, until recent times,
the natural center of interest in a room. People may like to sit at a
window on a summer day, but for many months of the year prefer to sit round
the fire and watch the dancing flames.
    In the Middle Ages the fireplaces in the halls of large castles were
very wide. Only wood was burnt, and large logs were carted in from the
forests, and supported as they burnt, on metal bars. Such wide fireplaces
may still be seen in old inns, and in some of them there are even seats
inside the fireplace.
    Elizabethan fireplaces often had carved stone or woodwork over the
fireplace, reaching to the ceiling. There were sometimes columns on each
side of the fireplace. In the 18th century, place was often provided over
the fireplace for a painting or mirror.
    When coal fires became common, fireplaces became much smaller. Grates
were used to hold the coal. Above the fireplace there was usually a shelf
on which there was often a clock, and perhaps framed photographs.


Pubs

    Do you know what a pub is? The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
defines it as a public house or building where people go to drink and to
meet their friends. English men like to get together in the pub in the
evening. The usual opening hours for pubs are on weekends from 11 a.m. to 3
p.m. and 5 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. On Sundays pubs may remain open for not more
than 5 and a half hours.
    Pubs usually have two drinking rooms called bars - the public and the
saloon bar, which is more comfortable but more expensive. "Bar" also means
the counter at which drinks are served.
    Pubs serve alcoholic and other drinks and often light meals. The main
drink served in pubs, is, of course, beer, light or dark. Light beer is
usually called bitter. As for other kinds of alcohol, most pubs serve
whisky, gin and wine. Beer is always sold in pint or half-pint glasses. A
pint is equivalent to 0.57 liter No alcoholic drinks may be served to young
people under eighteen under British law.
    In Great Britain today there are some 80,000 pubs situated in different
cities, country towns, villages, and so on. Of London's 5.000 pubs some of
the most interesting are right by the River Thames, downstream as well as
up. Every English pub has its own sign and name. Some people refer to pub
signs as a great open-air portrait gallery, which covers the whole country.
But actually this gallery includes far more than portraits.
    Some pub signs present different types of transport such as coaches,
trams, ships, airplanes and even flying boards. There are signboards
depicting animals, birds, fish as well as kings and queens, dukes and
lords, sailors, soldiers, fat men and giants. A first class example of an
heraldic pub sign is found near Leeds in
    Yorkshire at Burley. The Butcher's Arms can be seen in Gloucestershire
on a small typical English country pub near Sheepscombe.
    At Cheltenham also in the same county you will see a sign showing the
head of a horse, the name of the pub being Nags Head. At the village of
Slad, also in Gloucestershire you can have a pint of lager in Woolpack and
this pub sign shows a horse with two heavy packs of wool slung over it.
    In Wales the most attractive sign in a number of pubs share the name of
Market Tavern because all of them are on the pubs adjoining the market
place.
    In London the famous Sherlock Holmes pub with the big portrait of the
famous detective smoking his favourite pipe attracts thousands of visitors
to Northumberland Avenue.
    History, geography, fairytales are kept alive by the name or sign of
the "local" (the neighbourhood pub). As history is being made, so the
owners of the pubs - usually the brewery companies - and individual
publicans are quick to record it by new signs. Typical example is the "Sir
Francis Chichester" named after the first man to sail alone around the
world.
    Not all British pubs have individual signboards, but a considerable
effort is being made now to retain old signs. Jerome K. Jerome, the creator
of the internationally known book "Three Men In a Boat" over a hundred
years ago revealed himself at probably his most authoritative intro matter
or pubs. He clearly was a pub man and you can consider his famous book not
only a guidebook to the Thames but as the first of those now familiar
surveys of recommended places where to sleep, eat and enjoy beer. But in
many pubs one can also enjoy some traditional pub games. There are darts,
cards, skittles, coin games and various table games, of which playing darts
is the oldest one.
    Some of these games are difficult to find, as pubs have updated their
amenities by offering TV and video games, such as two-men tennis, fruit
machines, pinball machines, and so on. There are also other pub
entertainments, such as piano playing, folk-singing, jazz performances and
even theatres. However, if such table games as billiards or table football
which are played with two or four players as well as cards, dominoes and
coin games are known in this country, skittles and darts are less familiar.
    Skittles is one of the oldest pub games and dates back to medieval
England, the object of the game being to knock down as many skittles as
possible with a wooden ball. This pub game has lots of variations all over
Britain. Darts is also an old game, ' which was played by the Pilgrims in
1620 when they sailed, from England to the New World. That is why it is
well known in the USA, too. To play this game one must first of all have a
standard dartboard with numbers marked on it to indicate score. The outer
ring counts double, the middle one treble while at the very centre is the
bull (50) with its own outer circle (25). Dart players should stand at
least eight feet away from the board. The aim of the game is to score as
quickly as possible with the least number, of throws. The actual score a
player must get depends on the variety of game he is playing. Many pubs in
Great Britain have their own darts teams. So, if you come to Britain drop
in a pub, enjoy a pint of bitter and a "tongue sandwich, which speaks for
itself”.
    It sounds funny to foreigners but when it is closing time, the pub
barman calls "Time!" or "Time, gentlemen, pleaser!”


English Habits of Politeness

 

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